History > Key Stage 3

Making of the United Kingdom, 1500 – 1750
Course Notes and Worksheets

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1500 – 1603: The Tudors

Introduction: England in 1500

From 1485 – 1603 the Tudor family were on the throne of England. This was one of the most remarkable times in English history. At the beginning of this period, England was in many ways still a medieval country, but it was soon to become a 'modern' country, with big changes in the way it was run.

The Tudor family took control of England after the Wars of the Roses. The new king, Henry VII, was not very safe on the throne and the country was poor. Wars cost money, soldiers have to be paid and there had been fighting, on and off, for over 30 years. When Henry VII took the throne there were many who believed he would face problems both economically and politically.

Economics
Politics Anything to do with employment (jobs), taxation and trade
Decision – making and solving problems involved in the ruling of a country

{ Barons questioned Henry's right to rule, but Parliament was forced to accept it. This was a political problem he faced.
{ As England was poor – which meant the king was too – Henry raised the taxes people paid so that he would become richer and more powerful. This was an economic problem he faced.

At this time, the country was Catholic. The Pope was head of the Church and then, as now, he lived in Rome, Italy. Services were in Latin. The Church was very powerful and the monarch had to listen to the Church's view on how he should rule the country.

Within a hundred years the country had changed greatly. We will be looking at some major events and the people involved in these changes.

1509 – 1547: Henry VIII

Henry VIII took over the throne on the death of his father. The country was now fairly rich: England had not been involved in any wars since the Wars of the Roses and people had been paying taxes to the king.

Henry is probably most famous for marrying six wives and executing two of them. We will look at his marriages later.

Henry VIII had been educated to become a priest – as the second son of the king, he was destined to become Archbishop of Canterbury – but when his elder brother Arthur died, Henry was next in line for the throne. He became king at only 17 years of age!

Some people believe he should have continued to rule, like his father, by avoiding wars. Henry had other ideas: he had always been sporty and athletic and he liked to be noticed.

Henry did not enjoy ruling the country. He would rather enjoy himself hunting or in sporting activities. He chose ministers who would make day – to – day political decisions. These men could end up rich and powerful, but many also ended up ruined because Henry did not like their decisions.

One such person was Cardinal Wolsey. He acted like a Prime Minister and for a long time he enjoyed rewards from Henry: he had so much money that he could afford to have a huge palace built at Hampton, called Hampton Court. But even he would eventually feel Henry's anger.

Read the following description of Henry. It was written by a foreign politician who lived in England and met Henry several times.

"Henry is 29 years old and extremely handsome. He grew a beard like the king of France, but Henry's looks like gold. He is very talented, a good musician, and he speaks French, Latin and Spanish. He is very good at hunting and can tire out ten horses a day."

Henry and the Church

Although Henry ruled the country, the Pope had a big say on many things. Taxes had to be paid to the Church as well as to the king, but many people accepted this and Henry was loyal to the Catholic Church – remember, he had been trained to become a priest.

Some people in England, however, were not loyal to the Catholic Church. They believed it to be too powerful and that the Pope, who lived in a foreign land, was also too powerful. They wanted to go to Church and say their prayers or sing hymns in English. The also didn't believe in many of the things the Church taught. Other people in countries like Germany were protesting about the same thing. They became known as Protestants. It was against the law in many countries to question the authority of the Catholic Church and some people who did so were executed. In England, Henry had executed people who were caught reading Bibles that had been translated from Latin into English. He had also written a very scholarly book defending the Church's teachings.

Because of these actions, Henry was given a special honour by the Pope – the title of Fidelis Defensor (Fid.Def on the coins in your pocket!) – which means 'Defender of the Faith.'

The King's Great Matter

Henry's older brother Arthur left a young wife – Catherine of Aragon – when he died, and she soon married again, to Henry. She was the daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. Because Catherine was Henry's sister – in – law, they had to get special permission from the Pope before they could marry. Although Henry had clearly loved Catherine they had only one living child (though several sons died as babies) and this child was a daughter, Mary. There was no law against women inheriting the throne, but in practice, it was accepted that only a man could rule. Henry desperately wanted a son to follow him onto the throne of England and he wanted him sooner rather than later, so that he could train him to be a strong and powerful king, like himself.

The problem was that Catherine was nine years older than Henry, and could not have any more children because she was too old. He was not allowed to divorce Catherine – the Catholic Church did not allow divorce. Furthermore, Catherine's family in Spain were very powerful and would not have been happy. Henry was desperate, so much so that he sent Cardinal Wolsey to ask the one person who could grant it for permission to divorce: the Pope in Rome. Henry felt confident that permission would be granted – after all, he had been loyal to the Pope in the past. However, the Spanish King was more powerful than Henry (and Catherine's nephew as well) and insisted that the divorce was not granted. It would have been difficult for the Pope to grant it anyway, because Henry had needed special permission from an earlier Pope to marry Catherine in the first place.

Wolsey headed back to London with the bad news, but did not make it. Henry was furious with Wolsey for his failure and would probably have executed him, but Wolsey died of a heart attack on the way back.

After a lot of serious thinking, Henry made a decision that was to have a big impact on peoples lives – he decided to set up the Church of England with himself as head – then granted his own divorce petition.

The Reformation

Henry divorced Catherine and married Anne Boleyn in 1533. England's religion was now the Church of England. Of course, the Pope and many Catholic countries were angry at Henry's decision and there were to be consequences for England.

Henry decided that now he had changed the country's religion and allowed himself to divorce, he could make other changes, such as:

(i) The Bible would now be published in English, not Latin

(ii) Services would not be in English, not Latin

(iii) Churches would change (see Page 15)

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

As well as changing the Churches, Henry and his new chief minister – Thomas Cromwell – turned their attention to the priests. Many remained loyal to the Catholic Church and Henry saw them as a threat. He therefore decided to get rid of them.

It was decided, by Henry and Cromwell, to close down the monasteries, but they needed a reason to do this. If they could prove that monasteries were badly run and that the monks and nuns were not behaving as they should, then they had good reason to close them down.

Inspectors were sent out to the monasteries. If they found proof that they were badly run, Henry would close them down.

Here is what some of the inspectors said:

Report 1

About Crossed Friars Monastery, in London:

"About 11 o'clock in the morning we found the prior in bed with a woman, both naked."

Report 2

About St. Edmund's Monastery, near London:

"The Abbott loved to play dice and spend a lot of his money gambling. He had buildings built for his own pleasure."

Report 3

About Langdon Monastery, in Kent:

"When no-one answered the Abbott's door, we smashed it down with a small axe. We found the Abbott hiding, with his woman."

(a) (i) Which inspectors might be rewarded for their reports?

(a) (ii) Which inspectors might be punished for their reports?

(b) Can we trust what the inspectors said about these monasteries? Explain your answer.

(c) Complete the 'report' on the closure of the monasteries. (Assessment)

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Henry VIII: Differing Views

Source A

Written in 1509 by a 'friend', Lord Mountjoy:

"He is wise, he has a love for everything that is right and good. He is no seeker of gold. He wants only fame and eternal life."

Source B

Written by the French Ambassador in 1538:

"Henry is a wonderful man and has wonderful people around him."

Source C

Written by Charles Dickens in 1854:

"The plain truth is that he was a violent, horrible man, a disgrace and a grease stain upon the History of England."

Source D

An historian's view:

"I find it difficult to think of any generous action he performed. He was very selfish."

 

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Mary Tudor

The period of religious change called The Reformation continued after Henry's death in 1547 under his son, Edward. Edward had many health problems and died aged 15. He left behind a country that was firmly Protestant. Anythng to do with the Catholic religion was swept away. But not everyone accepted these changes. Rebellions against the Reformation continued, but it could not stop English – language Bibles being the norm in all churches. To have any other Bible (for instance, one printed in Latin instead of English) would mean breaking the law, and in most instances, punishments were cruel and harsh.

Edward was only 15 when he died, and his death caused a problem ....

The next in line to the throne was Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, who had brought Mary up as a Catholic(!). It was obvious what Mary intended to do.

Mary is best remembered for her fierce hatred of all Protestants. Protestant leaders were burnt to death and many Catholics were upset at the way such people were treated. England also became involved in a war between France and Spain because of her husband, Philip's, attitude.

The main worry for many people was that Mary and Philip would have a child, who would of course be heir to the throne. Many Protestants and Catholics were relieved when she died childless.

The Spanish Armada: 1588

The arguments with Spain finally boiled over in 1588 when a great sea battle took place between the navies of Spain and England. There had been a series of battles between the ships of the two countries for several years, until finally the Spanish decided to take on the English Navy. The Spanish Navy, the Armada, set sail and hoped to defeat the English in a series of sea battles. The English knew the attack was going to happen and planned for months beforehand.

The result was a great victory for the English and a humiliating defeat for Spain. (Humiliating means suffering a really bad defeat or result – to be made humble or lose respect).

The defeat of Spain meant that it was no longer a threat to England. Elizabeth, as Queen, was seen as a heroine and all those who fought in any way against the Spanish were heroes too.

Queen Elizabeth I

Because Mary died childless, her half-sister Elizabeth took the throne. She ruled for 45 years (1558-1603) in a man's world. What her father, Henry VIII would have thought is anybody's guess, but the fact is she achieved as much as any king did.

Elizabeth faced many problems, including the subject of religion. She had sympathy for both Catholics and Protestants and many people say she compromised over religion. She was in public a Protestant, but allowed many aspects of the Catholic religion. Her own 'musician' was a Catholic and there was far more tolerance between Catholics and Protestants.

Another of Elizabeth's problems revolved around her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scotland. Mary was a strong Catholic and next in line to the English throne. Elizabeth realised that if she herself married and had children, Mary would never become Queen of England. Elizabeth had many foreign suitors, but she turned them all down. For various reasons she remained single and Mary was, therefore, a threat. Mary believed that Elizabeth would be assassinated by Catholics to ensure that she, Mary, would become Queen of England.

Mary had lived in France for many years because she was married to a French prince, but after he died, she returned to Scotland, where she was disliked. After many troubles, Mary was deposed and imprisoned, but escaped to England, where she requested help from her cousin Elizabeth to regain her throne. (They never actually met).

This was a huge problem for Elizabeth. What should she do? If she helped Mary regain the throne of Scotland, Mary might one day invade and try to take the English throne too. If Mary was handed back to her enemies in Scotland, she would certainly be executed and Elizabeth would be blamed for it by the Catholics of both countries.

Elizabeth's solution was to accuse Mary of treason and put her in prison, where she stayed for 18 years. Catholics in England were unhappy about this and after many years, Mary was found guilty of plotting with them against Queen Elizabeth, and executed.

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The Stuarts

The Gunpowder Plot

"Elizabeth is dead!" There is a problem – no heir to the throne in England. In fact, the heir is James Stuart, son of Mary, Queen of Scots (remember – the one Elizabeth had executed). He was king of Scotland. Like Elizabeth, he wanted tolerance. His adviser, Robert Cecil,persuaded him that Catholics would plot to kill him, so he passed laws that made it illegal to practise the Catholic religion.

Of course, this upset Catholics, so they did plot to kill the king. They decided that 5th November 1605, the day Parliament opened for business after a holiday, would be the best time. The king would be there because it was his job to 'open' Parliament. Now the plotters had to work out how to blow up Parliament.

Unlike today, Parliament did not have huge numbers of security guards. Also, there was nothing like the police and security forces we have today to prevent such attacks. Thirdly, you could hire rooms within the Parliament buildings without too much difficulty.

The biggest problem was obtaining gunpowder. You needed a spcial licence to buy it and there would also be the question of getting 30 barrels of gunpowder past the guards.

The plotters were caught. What mistakes were made? Obviously a plot to kill the king and many other people was serious. Some Catholics involved may have wanted to warn friends to stay away from Parliament on 5th November. We know of one person who was warned. He told the people responsible for security. Also, Robert Cecil had a spy network and it is generally believed that there was never any danger of Parliament being blown up – it was a case of waiting for the plotters to be caught red – handed.

Who Was Guy Fawkes?

Guido (Guy) Fawkes was a Catholic soldier who was used to working with gunpowder. He was chosen for the job of lighting the fuse. All the planning was done by others. It was Guido who was caught first and after being questioned and tortured until he gave the names of those involved, was then 'drawn' through the streets of London and then hung and quartered. His head was put on a pike on London Bridge as a warning to others.

His fellow plotters suffered a similar fate. There were those in Parliament who may have been involved in the plot, but some plotters were poisoned so that they could not give the whole story.

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The English Civil War 1642-1647

A Civil War is a series of battles/fights between two or more groups from the same country. The arguments between the sides are normally complicated, as happened in England between the Roundheads and Cavaliers. Civil wars are different to other wars in many ways.

Not everybody was keen to fight, as we have seen previously. The source below is an example of this:

"You are a true friend but in the present circumstances there is a problem between us. I must be true to my beliefs even though I detest this war."

The letter above was written by William Waller, a general on Parliament’s side. He is writing to Ralph Hopton, a general on the Royalist side.

At the start of the war and until the 20th Century, soldiers and officers were paid very little. People talk about becoming a soldier and taking “the King’s shilling.” This was the amount you were paid on signing up. Wages after this were small. You made money at the end of the battle, when, if you were on the winning side, you were allowed to loot (rob) the soldiers you killed. Both sides would take food from local farmers or shopkeepers. Not everybody found this easy during the Civil War. It was easier to rob a French or Spanish soldier, but not so easy to take from someone you might have known.

At first the King’s army (Cavaliers) were winning. A large number of the officers and soldiers had fought before – they were experienced. But soon the Roundheads were better. One of their commanders, Oliver Cromwell (no relation to Thomas), trained his troops well and they in return were very loyal – most unusual for soldiers of that time. Why?

Simply because Cromwell promised his soldiers that if they did their job well they would not only be paid, but there was the chance of promotion to a higher rank. This was previously unheard of. The system had been that rich people bought their way into the army as officers. Promotions were possible for bravery during wars, but were more often bought.

At a time when a whole family were lucky to earn £10 – 15 per year, a Cornetcy (a Cornet was the most junior trainee officer rank) could cost up to £500. If you were poor, you started in the ranks and if you were lucky and survived long enough, you might eventually, after years of service, become a sergeant. In Cromwell’s army, those who fought hard and well – and survived – could win promotion. Promotion meant higher pay and a better lifestyle. This motivated Cromwell’s soldiers to train like real soldiers – they wanted to impress.

Civil War Armies

If the United Kingdom was to go to war today, the Armed Forces (Navy, Air Force and Army) would be fighting together to help win the war. The forces receive billions of pounds for weapons, clothing, medical care, diet, technology and many other things. It was very different when the Civil War broke out in 1642!

For instance, there was more than one army because a landowner could raise an army from the people who lived on his land. He could also pay professional soldiers (mercenaries) to fight for him – his main decision was which side to support, Parliament or the King.

Mercenaries were paid well and invested their pay in the best equipment they could afford (which would increase their chances of surviving), and like all soldiers, they were allowed to loot (rob) the losing side – a bonus for winning.

Oliver Cromwell led a dedicated team of soldiers. He trained them well and paid them well. He also thought about the tactics of his battles. Some information on one of the most famous of these is given below:

Source A

Many civilians did not want to get involved in the fighting. Some didn’t have a choice. A landowner might support King or Parliament. He might offer his chosen side extra soldiers (civilians to fight in the army), which was bad news for the civilians, who would have no choice but to go where their ‘master’ sent them. For others, the bad news might be that a battle was fought on the land they farmed. Any crops not ruined, any livestock on the land, would be stolen by whichever army was nearest.

Source B

Prince Rupert was the King’s nephew. His men went into every house, swearing and threatening the poor women. They stole from the people in the town. They searched everywhere they thought there might be money or goods. They assaulted many women and bragged about it afterwards. The next day, they started fires in every street.

Civil War Battles – Timeline

The King settled himself at Nottingham and the main events are as follows:

1642 The Royalists are favourites to win – they have experience. The first major battle – Edgehill – does not end in a clear victory for either side. Charles tries to gain control of London, but fails.

1643 Victories for both sides. Parliament makes friends with Scotland. Oliver Cromwell reorganises the Parliamentary army to make it more efficient.

1644 Parliament and the Scots join together to defeat the King at Marston Moor. The King is in big trouble.

1645 Cromwell’s army, now called the New Model Army, defeat the Royalists at Naseby.

1646 Charles surrenders to the Scots.

1647 The Scots sell Charles to Parliament for £400,000. Parliament is divided on what to do next. Some want an end to the war. Cromwell disagrees. meanwhile, Charles escapes. He arranges for the Scottish Protestants to help him. They get help from the English Protestants.

1648 The Scots invade England, but are beaten at Preston. Parliament now consists of only 100 MPs, who decide to put the King on trial.

1649 The trial is brief. Charles, having been recaptured, refuses to accept the court set up to try him. He is found guilty and sentenced to death, with his execution set for 30th January. Parliament decides to abolish the monarchy.

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Year 8 Assessment

Causes of the Civil War – Letter to Charles

You are a Protestant MP. You have advised and supported King Charles for many years. It is now 1642 and you feel you are unable to support Charles in his argument against Parliament.

Write a letter to Charles to explain why, after all these years, you no longer support him. You hope to persuade him to listen to Parliament rather than go to war.

Section 1

Perhaps you will mention that you still see Charles as a friend and that you supported him in the early years of his reign, especially when:

• he married Henrietta Maria (his Catholic wife);
• he raised taxes;
• he dismissed Parliament

Section 2

Here you will remind Charles that you were still loyal to him, although you disagreed with is ideas over ten years ago. For example:

• his belief in Divine Right;
• his way of raising money through monopolies and forced loans;
• his attitude to religion – especially to the Puritans;
• his insistence on Ship Money, which was very unpopular.

Section 3

Here you will concentrate on recent events:

• why you disagreed on the war with Scotland;
• why you had to act after the arrest of five MPs.

How to Score Higher Marks

• Do not just list the reasons why you have fallen out with Charles – try to explain one or two major reasons for your annoyance in each section.
• Remember that presentation is important.
• You will lose marks for simple spelling mistakes, missing out full stops and not using capital letters for the names of people/places/events.

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The End of the Civil War

Remember, not everyone had been reluctant to fight against the king. At the end of the war though, Oliver Cromwell and many others in Parliament blamed Charles. They called him "The Man of Blood." They believed if he remained alive another civil war was possible.

The Trial

Many people were not looking forward to the king's trial. Even some Parliamentary leaders didn't turn up and some of those who did, wore metal hats in case the king's supporters attacked them.

The charge against Charles was that he had tried to rule on his own, without Parliament, and ignored the Law:

"Charles Stuart, King of England, trusted to govern England, had a wicked design to give himself unlimited power. You waged war against Parliament and the People. You are therefore responsible for all the murders, rapings, burnings and damage caused by the war."

The court found Charles guilty, and worse was to follow – he was sentenced to death. In order for the Death Penalty to be carried out, a document had to be signed by the judges. Of the 135 who found him guilty, 59 signed the Death Warrant.

The Execution of Charles

After his trial and imprisonment, Charles still managed to organise an attack by Royalists. He even persuaded the Scots to fight on his side, but eventually Parliament gained full control and people awaited the execution, which was set for 30th January 1649. It took place at the doorway of the Banqueting House near Parliament. Charles made a final speech:

"I shall begin by saying I am innocent. I never started the war and God will defend me."

After his execution, his head was held up for all to see. One eyewitness said, "There was a great groan, one I'd never heard before."

Some people tried to run towards the king's body and were seen soaking their handkerchiefs in his blood.

England Without a King: 1649-1660

After the execution of King Charles, Parliament ran the country, and Puritans ran Parliament. There were many new laws which changed the way people lived. Special soldiers, called Major Generals, made sure people obeyed these laws.

Cromwell – Army and Parliament

Oliver Cromwell tried to get Parliament and the Army to work together, but neither wanted to give away any of their power. Until Cromwell's death in 1658 there were many arguments between the two and other groups also wanted a say in how the country should be run. Two such groups were the 'Levellers' and the 'Diggers.' The Levellers wanted all adult males to have the vote. The Diggers wanted to give common land, which was being fenced off by the landlords for their own use, back to the people. (Every village had its Common – common land on which each villager could graze a goat or a few geese.) A popular rhyme of Cromwell's day explains how the Diggers felt about the situation:

The law doth jail the man or woman
Who steals the goose from off the Common –
But lets the greater villain loose
Who steals the Common from the goose!

Cromwell didn't support the Levellers or the Diggers and he crushed them by using force. He had other problems too – in Ireland, Catholics were threatening the English who ruled there. There was also the threat of invasion from Spain and France.

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Cromwell Assessment

Look at the two sources below and then answer the questions which follow.

Source A

"Soldiers and Puritans thought Cromwell was wonderful. Cavaliers hated him. I think he was modest until success spoiled him. He thought that God had made him great. He throught that if God was with him, he must always be right."

Written just after Cromwell's death by a Puritan who knew him personally.

Source B

"Cromwell was a modest man – keen to do his duty. His enemies said he was ambitious, but he was not out for himself. He wanted, above all, to serve his country, understand his friends and firgive his enemies. When he won a battle, he gave thanks to the Lord."

From a modern History book.

1. Look at Source A.

(a) Why would Cavaliers 'hate' Cromwell?

(b) Why does the writer criticise Cromwell?

(c) Is the information reliable? Give reasons for your answer.

2. Look at Source B.

(a) In your own words, explain whether the write likes Cromwell, or not.

(b) Who might disagree with the author? Give examples.

3. What advantage does the author of Source B have in forming his opinion of Cromwell? Explain your answer (clue: hindsight).

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The Return of the Monarchy: Restoration

Cromwell died in 1658. His son, Richard, could not command the same respect and resigned as Lord Protector in 1659. There was confusion until a Parliamentary General, – George Monck – marched into London preparing the way for the return of the eldest son of Charles I – Charles II.

Charles II took over and learnt from his father's mistakes. There were many consequences for the people of England. (A consequence, you will remember, is a result of an action. For instance: (i) you do good work – you get a merit, a good report, possibly a treat from your parents; (ii) you are late for a lesson – you are told off, get a detention. Consequences can be good or bad.)

When Charles II became the new king, there were winners and losers.

Ireland: 1600-1750

The English had been in Ireland since the 12th Century. They controlled an area around Dublin called 'the Pale'. Most Irish people were Catholics.

During the reigns of Mary, Elizabeth and James, the English had tried to take over more land than the Pale. Soldiers were sent and land taken was given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland. They called the land they took over, plantations.

Cromwell

Cromwell expelled all priests, took most of the land away from Catholics and tried to convert the Irish to Protestantism.

When the English took control of Irish towns, even those who surrendered were all killed and the towns were sacked. Landowners were driven away. By 1660 less than 20% of land was owned by the Irish, but Cromwell couldn't persuade the Irish to become Protestant.

In 1689 the deposed King James II came from France with an army of French and English Catholic soldiers. An Irish army was formed. William III of England (William of Orange) arrived with his English Protestant army and defeated James at the Battle of the Boyne.

In Protestant areas of Ireland today, the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne is celebrated every year and William of Orange is seen as a hero. The reverse is true in Catholic areas – he and Cromwell are seen as evil because of the way they treated Catholics.