History > Key Stage 4 > Course Notes and Revision Lists

Vietnam

Background

Ho Chi Minh organised fight for independence against the French. His followers were called Viet Minh. At the GenevaPeace Conference in 1954, Vietnam was divided into two: North Vietnam to be ruled by Ho, South to be ruled by NGO DINH DIEM. People could choose to live in North or South.

US Involvement in Vietnam

John F Kennedy became President of the USA in November 1960. He believed in the Domino Theory, which said that if one country went communist, then others would follow. Kennedy said that America would be "willing to pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty."

Kennedy believed that the USA could stop the National Liberation Front from being victorious in South Vietnam. The NLF was an organisation set up to overthrow the South Vietnamese government and install a communist government.

Kennedy and Vietnam

In 1961 Kennedy agreed to give the South Vietnamese army an increase in military advisors. There were no US fighting soldiers in Vietnam at this time, only 'advisors'.

In 1962 the Strategic Hamlet programme was set up. This involved moving South Vietnamese peasants into new areas where a stockade was built round their village and patrolled by armed guards. The idea was to control sympathisers of the NLF. It caused resentment towards the South Vietnamese government.

By the end of 1962 there were over 12,000 US 'military advisers' in South Vietnam and 300 US helicopters.

In 1964 John F Kennedy had been replaced by Lyndon B Johnson. He continued Kennedy's policy. He said "If we quit Vietnam, tomorrow we'll be fighting in Hawaii and next week we'll be fighting in San Francisco."

His military advisers wanted him to take more forceful action against the NLF. He was, at this stage, unwilling to send US soldiers to fight, especially with an election coming up in the USA. Some felt the USA should bomb the capital of North Vietnam, which would hopefully stop them supporting the NLF. He settled for Operation Plan 34A which involved employing Asian mercenaries to carry out acts of sabotage or killing communist officials. To support this, a US destroyer was sent to the Gulf of Tonkin to obtain information on Vietnamese naval defences.

This destroyer, the USS Maddox, was fired upon by North Vietnam. A whole series of retaliatory strikes were made by both sides and simply put, President Johnson used this episode to go 'to war' with North Vietnam. The US government authorised the President to take all necessary measures against Vietnam and the NLF. Johnson even argued that he would not send US troops to fight. He was elected President again.

Three months after being elected, Johnson launched "Operation Rolling Thunder". A whole series of blanket bombing raids would take place on a regular basis. It lasted three years and in that time, the US dropped 1,000,000 tons of bombs on Vietnam.

The NLF retaliated by attacking US air bases in South Vietnam. The Chief Adviser in South Vietnam wanted more troops to help defend the US air bases and on 8th March 1965, 3,500 US Marines, the first US combat troops, were sent to Vietnam.

The tactics of the NLF have often be described as 'guerrilla warfare'. This meant that NLF soldiers could only win the war against the US with the constant and active support of the peasants in South Vietnam. When they entered a village, they obeyed a strict code of behaviour – do not damage land or spoil crops; don't borrow from peasants – they are too poor; never break a promise; don't talk down to them; help them in their daily work.

Simply put, the NLF tried to educate and help the peasants. The NLF tried to point out to peasants that the reason they were poor was political and that supporting the NLF would help them escape poverty. Peasants readily helped the NLF. It helped that the US Marines punished villages which helped the NLF.

Guerrilla warfare would mean sending out patrols into US/South Vietnamese areas and using the environment to help them fight. They would not confront soldiers in hand – to – hand fighting. The Vietminh (or Vietcong) knew they would not be certain of winning battles as the US easily outnumbered them and had better weapons.

Guerrilla warfare also used booby traps. These took the form of sharpened bamboo staves and mines, such as 'Bouncing Betty'. They were camouflaged and planted in areas where US Marines patrolled. Again the Vietminh used unexploded US bombs as explosives.

US Marines were reluctant to search for the enemy in such areas. The 'enemy' dressed like and looked like the peasants. Innocent civilians were often killed by mistake.

The NLF often built underground tunnels to help them escape from village or just to hide in if a US Marine group came to search for NLF. It was often said that finding a VC (Vietcong/Vietminh) was like searching for a "teardrop in a bucket of water".

The Guerrillas used the Ho Chi Minh Trail to travel between North and South Vietnam. Finding this trail was difficult for US patrols. At first the US government tried to build a barrier between South and North. Attacks on those constructing the barrier led to the plan being abandoned.

So how was the US to win the war? Technology, or so they thought, would be the answer. Three times as many bombs were dropped in Vietnam than in the whole of WWII.

They dropped incendiary bombs. Napalm was used, a mixture of petrol and chemical thickener which produces a sticky gel that attaches itself to the skin. The idea was to clear the countryside of the trails that the VCs used. On many occasions it was 'mistakenly' dropped on civilian areas.

A 'pineapple' bomb had 250 metal pellets inside. Thousands were dropped in civilian areas.

Operation Ranch Hand began in 1962. This involved spraying forest with chemicals, again with the intention of destroying them. Unfortunately it caused massive problems for those whose land was affected or when it landed on crops. The chemical used was Agent Orange.

Agent Blue was specifically used to destroy crops near the North Vietnamese border. The idea was to destroy food supplies.

How much damage was done? Yes, supply trails were disrupted; hideouts were destroyed – but at what cost? It caused resentment and anger towards the US from the very people they were supposed to be helping and some said that economically it cost the US "$10 for every dollar's worth of damage inflicted."

US Troops in Vietnam

Three million US troops served in Vietnam and the majority saw aspects of fighting. The average age of US soldiers serving in Vietnam was 19. Over 100,000 of these soldiers have committed suicide since returning from Vietnam.

The stress of the job; the climate; the fear of death or serious injury; the fear of capture and subsequent torture have been put forward as the main reasons for this.

Many complained about the tactics used. At Hamburger Hill, of 600 US troops who attempted to capture the hill, 476 were killed or wounded before it was taken. A day after capturing the hill, the US troops were ordered to withdraw! Many troops tried to kill – sometimes successfully – officers who were unpopular.

The Tet Offensive

By September 1967, the NLF had launched a series of attacks on American garrisons. The US Chief Westmoreland told President Johnson that the NLF were running out of men.

In 1968 the VCs launched the Tet Offensive, a supreme attack on South Vietnamese towns and villages with the purpose of drawing out US troops. The VCs were partly successful, even reaching Saigon and taking control of key areas. Although the US killed 37,000 NLF soldiers compared to 2,500 US deaths, it was decided that the US could never win the war and Johnson intended to seek a negotiated peace.

The Peace Movement

At the start of the war only a few people in the US were against it: those who were communist; pacifists who were against all war and those who wanted to stop confrontation by talking.

The first march for peace attracted on 25,000 people. As the war continued numbers increased. Why?

• The use of chemical weapons – was this the action of a civilised country?
• The use of weapons/bombs on civilians.
• The use of torture against many – this war was heavily reported in the press and on film. US people were shocked at the stories they read and saw.
• Conscription – many felt it was wrong to force the young to go and fight.
• The middle classes became more supportive. These were people whose husbands/sons/brothers never returned or if they did, they were perhaps physically and mentally wrecked.
• The Vietnam Veterans Movement: they questioned what the war had achieved and at what price. "I hope that someday I can return to Vietnam and help to rebuild that country we took apart."
• Political reasons: politicians were unhappy at the economic cost of the war and of those votes they were not losing.
• Students who demonstrated against the war were shot.

The Mass Media

The Peace Movement was helped by the fact that the war received massive publicity. "This was the first war fought on television and is in everybody's living room every day" said a politician.

Life magazine, a widely read publication in the US, filled on of its editions with photos of 242 soldiers killed in Vietnam during one week of fighting.

Vietnamisation

In March 1968 the US introduced its policy of Vietnamisation. US troops would be gradually reduced. They also agreed to enter Peace Talks in Paris. The US would not admit defeat.

My Lai

In 1971 Lieutenant William Calley was found guilty of murdering 109 Vietnamese civilians at My Lai. He was sentenced to life imprisonment but only served three years before being released.

During the war, 25 US soldiers were charged, but only Calley was found guilty.

My Lai was a turning point. Troops, for whatever reason, were out of control. They could not control themselves when they witnessed horrors. A detailed investigation into the atrocity was widely reported in the US. Some felt it was now time to leave.

The US Withdraws

After withdrawal civilians (US and Vietnamese) had to cope with many problems.

Social

• Vietnamese women had children with US soldiers and this led to numerous problems after the US left.
• Vietnam was hit by US culture – drugs, music. Some of this was harmful, some not.
• US soldiers went back after a year and were left with psychological/physical problems.
• Film – US trying to put right the wrongs of Vietnam.

Political

• Supporters of the US were victimised.
• South Vietnam became communist.

Economic

• The sudden withdrawal of US troops had a massive effect on the economy of the South.
  

Pages created by J Reeve, 2006.